Hardware and Sensing Technologies

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[karlisberkolds]

The underlying active physical components for all electronic systems are semiconductors. Semiconductors span several major categories based on function, material system, and integration level. At the most basic level are discrete devices such as diodes, MOSFETs, IGBTs, and rectifiers, which control current and voltage and are widely used in power conversion and motor drives. Analog and mixed-signal semiconductors handle sensing, amplification, signal conditioning, and power management (e.g., ADCs, DACs, voltage regulators, sensor interfaces). Memory semiconductors—such as DRAM, SRAM, NAND flash, and emerging non-volatile memories like MRAM—store data and program code. Power semiconductors use materials such as silicon, silicon carbide (SiC), and gallium nitride (GaN) to efficiently switch high voltages and currents in electric vehicles, aircraft power systems, and renewable energy converters. Finally, specialized devices such as RF front-end chips, image sensors (CMOS), FPGAs, and AI accelerators support communication, perception, and high-performance computing tasks. Together, these categories form the layered semiconductor ecosystem that underpins modern automotive, airborne, marine, and space electronic architectures. An important category is digital logic devices include microcontrollers (MCUs), microprocessors (MPUs), and system-on-chip (SoC) devices that execute programming of some form (FPGA, Software, AI). We shall discuss this in greater detail in the next chapter on software.

In this chapter, we shall review historical background to the absorption of semiconductors in various mobility domains. As a part of this background, we shall outline some key “productization” challenges such as safety, governance, and supply chain management. With this background, we will introduce the jump in complexity introduced by autonomy and revisit the key “productization” challenges.

Historically, cyber-physical systems were mechanically based, but with the advent of modern electronics, critical functions moved rapidly to electronics subsystems. For example, automotive electronics in the 1970s and early 1980s, tightening emissions standards in the U.S., Europe, and Japan pushed automakers to adopt microprocessor-based engine control units (ECUs). What began as simple ignition timing modules evolved into closed-loop engine management systems handling fuel injection and knock control— “Power Train” block shown in the graphic. These early semiconductor deployments were ruggedized analog/mixed-signal designs, optimized for reliability in high-temperature environments rather than computational complexity.

Through the late 1980s and 1990s, electronics expanded from powertrain into chassis and safety systems. Anti-lock braking systems (ABS), electronic stability control, traction control, and eventually electric power steering (EPS) required real-time sensing and actuation. This corresponds to the “Chassis” and “Safety and Control” domains in the image (ABS, airbag controllers, TPMS, collision warning). Here, semiconductors enabled distributed sensing (wheel speed sensors, accelerometers, pressure sensors) and deterministic embedded processing. The architecture remained domain-centric: each function had its own ECU, with limited cross-domain integration. The next wave, roughly 1995–2010, was driven less by regulation and more by consumer expectation. Vehicles became platforms for infotainment and comfort electronics, shown in the graphic’s “Infotainment” and “Comfort and Control” sections (dashboard displays, navigation, climate control, seat modules, body electronics). This phase marked the introduction of higher-performance digital SoCs, memory subsystems, and human-machine interface processors. Importantly, this is when in-vehicle networking standards such as CAN, LIN, and later FlexRay (listed under “Networking” ) became essential. The car shifted from isolated ECUs to a distributed electronic architecture connected by data buses—semiconductors were no longer just controllers; they were nodes in a communication network.

Figure 1: Automobile electronics

By the 2010s, semiconductor content per vehicle had grown exponentially, especially with hybrid and electric vehicles Power electronics (IGBTs, MOSFETs, later SiC devices), battery management systems, and high-voltage control loops dramatically increased the role of advanced semiconductor materials and mixed-signal integration. Simultaneously, advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS)—collision warning, parking assist, night vision—required vision processors, radar front-ends, and sensor fusion chips, extending the “Safety and Control” block into high-performance computing territory.

Airborne Sector

If the automotive graphic represents the distributed, domain-based maturation of electronics in cars, the airborne sector followed a similar—but more safety-critical and certification-driven—trajectory. In the early jet age (1950s–1970s), aircraft electronics—then called avionics—were largely analog and federated. Radar, navigation, flight instruments, engine monitoring, and autopilot systems were separate boxes with limited interconnection. Semiconductors initially replaced vacuum tubes for reliability and weight reduction, but computational capability was modest. Much like early automotive engine controllers, electronics were introduced to solve specific operational needs—navigation accuracy, radio communication, and flight stabilization—rather than to create an integrated digital platform. The major inflection point came in the 1980s and 1990s with the rise of digital flight control and “fly-by-wire” architectures, pioneered in civil aviation by aircraft such as the Airbus A320 and expanded in military platforms like the F-16 Fighting Falcon. Here, semiconductors moved from advisory roles to safety-critical control loops. Digital signal processors and radiation-tolerant microcontrollers executed deterministic real-time algorithms for stability augmentation, envelope protection, and engine control (FADEC).

During the 1990s–2000s, avionics entered a “glass cockpit” era. Aircraft such as the Boeing 777 replaced analog gauges with integrated digital displays driven by high-reliability processors and graphics subsystems. Data buses such as ARINC 429 and later AFDX (ARINC 664) enabled deterministic networking between flight computers, sensors, and displays—analogous to CAN and FlexRay in the automotive diagram. However, unlike automotive networks, airborne data buses were built around strict partitioning, redundancy, and fault containment regions. Triple-modular redundancy and dissimilar processors became common for flight-critical functions. In propulsion and power systems, semiconductors expanded from monitoring to active control. Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) units used mixed-signal ASICs and microprocessors to optimize fuel flow, reduce emissions, and improve reliability. With the emergence of “more-electric aircraft” concepts—exemplified by the Boeing 787—power electronics content increased substantially. High-voltage converters, motor drives, and solid-state power controllers replaced hydraulic subsystems, mirroring (though earlier in safety rigor) the electrification wave seen in automotive HEV/EV platforms.

Marine Sector

The marine industry’s use of electronics evolved from isolated navigation aids to highly integrated digital ship systems, following a trajectory structurally similar to automotive but at much larger power scales and with longer asset lifecycles. In the 1950s through the 1970s, marine electronics were primarily analog and functionally segregated: radar, sonar, gyrocompasses, VHF radios, and basic autopilots operated as standalone systems. Early semiconductor adoption focused on improving reliability and reducing size, particularly in radar and communication equipment. These systems were advisory in nature; propulsion and steering remained largely mechanical or hydraulic. The first major digital transition occurred in the 1980s and 1990s with the arrival of microprocessor-based engine control, satellite navigation (GPS), and electronic charting systems. Ships began incorporating digital propulsion governors, fuel optimization systems, and centralized alarm monitoring. This period resembles the automotive shift from carburetors to engine control units and ABS systems. Importantly, networking standards such as NMEA 0183 and later NMEA 2000 allowed sensors and navigation systems to exchange data, marking the move from isolated instrumentation to distributed marine electronics architectures.

By the 2000s, large commercial and naval vessels adopted Integrated Bridge Systems (IBS) and Integrated Platform Management Systems (IPMS), consolidating radar, charting, sonar, propulsion status, and safety alerts into unified digital consoles. Power electronics content increased significantly with electric propulsion drives, thruster control, hybrid marine power systems, and dynamic positioning systems. This phase mirrors the automotive expansion into electrification and body-domain integration. In recent years, semiconductor density has grown further with sensor fusion for collision avoidance, remote fleet monitoring, predictive maintenance, and early-stage autonomous surface vessels. While regulatory frameworks remain conservative, marine architecture now consists of interconnected propulsion, navigation, safety, power distribution, and autonomy subsystems — conceptually analogous to the domain blocks in the automotive graphic.

Space Sector

The space sector followed a parallel but more reliability-driven evolution, shaped by radiation tolerance, extreme environments, and mission assurance requirements. In the early space age, spacecraft electronics were built from discrete logic and radiation-hardened components with very limited computational capacity. Systems were strictly federated: guidance, telemetry, power conditioning, communications, and thermal control were separate subsystems with built-in redundancy. Early digital computers such as those used in the Apollo Guidance Computer demonstrated that semiconductors could enable autonomous navigation, but computational margins were minimal and fault tolerance was paramount. During the 1990s and early 2000s, radiation-hardened microprocessors and standardized spacecraft data buses such as MIL-STD-1553 and SpaceWire enabled more modular digital architecture. Satellites adopted structured subsystems for attitude determination and control, onboard data handling, payload processing, and power regulation. Missions like the Hubble Space Telescope and deep-space platforms such as the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter incorporated increasingly sophisticated onboard processing for navigation, instrument control, and fault management. This stage resembles the distributed ECU era in automotive, where each domain was digitally controlled but interconnected via deterministic buses. In the modern era, semiconductor capability in space systems has expanded dramatically. High-throughput communications satellites, FPGA-based reconfigurable payloads, advanced solid-state power controllers, electric propulsion systems, and autonomous fault detection algorithms define current architectures. Commercial constellations developed by companies such as SpaceX have introduced vertically integrated avionics stacks and more software-defined spacecraft platforms. Unlike automotive, however, semiconductor design in space prioritizes radiation hardening, redundancy, and long-duration reliability over cost optimization. The overall trajectory mirrors the automotive diagram’s layered growth: from instrumentation digitization to closed-loop control, to networked subsystems, and now toward increasingly autonomous, software-defined space platforms.

Across marine and space domains — as in automotive — semiconductor adoption progressed from monitoring to control, from isolated subsystems to networked architecture, and from mechanical dominance to electrically and computationally mediated platforms. The architectural blocks differ in naming (propulsion, navigation, attitude control, power conditioning), but structurally they represent the same historical layering visible in the automotive figure.