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| Autonomous aircraft (e.g., drones, urban air mobility platforms, and optionally piloted systems) must operate in highly structured, safety-critical environments. Validation involves rigorous formal methods, fault tolerance analysis, and conformance with aviation safety standards such as DO-178C (software), DO-254 (hardware), and emerging guidance like ASTM F38 and EASA's SC-VTOL. Airspace governance is centralized and mature, often requiring type certification and airworthiness approvals. Unlike automotive systems, airborne autonomy must prove reliability in loss-of-link scenarios and demonstrate fail-operational capabilities across flight phases. | Autonomous aircraft (e.g., drones, urban air mobility platforms, and optionally piloted systems) must operate in highly structured, safety-critical environments. Validation involves rigorous formal methods, fault tolerance analysis, and conformance with aviation safety standards such as DO-178C (software), DO-254 (hardware), and emerging guidance like ASTM F38 and EASA's SC-VTOL. Airspace governance is centralized and mature, often requiring type certification and airworthiness approvals. Unlike automotive systems, airborne autonomy must prove reliability in loss-of-link scenarios and demonstrate fail-operational capabilities across flight phases. | ||
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| Autonomous surface and underwater marine systems face unstructured and communication-constrained environments. They must operate reliably in GPS-denied or RF-blocked conditions while detecting obstacles like buoys, vessels, or underwater terrain. Validation is more empirical, often involving extended sea trials, redundancy in navigation systems, and adaptive mission planning. IMO (International Maritime Organization) and classification societies like DNV are working on Maritime Autonomous Surface Ship (MASS) regulatory frameworks, though global standards are still nascent. The dual-use nature of marine autonomy (civil and defense) adds governance complexity. Space-based autonomous systems (e.g., planetary rovers, autonomous docking spacecraft, and space tugs) operate under extreme constraints: | Autonomous surface and underwater marine systems face unstructured and communication-constrained environments. They must operate reliably in GPS-denied or RF-blocked conditions while detecting obstacles like buoys, vessels, or underwater terrain. Validation is more empirical, often involving extended sea trials, redundancy in navigation systems, and adaptive mission planning. IMO (International Maritime Organization) and classification societies like DNV are working on Maritime Autonomous Surface Ship (MASS) regulatory frameworks, though global standards are still nascent. The dual-use nature of marine autonomy (civil and defense) adds governance complexity. Space-based autonomous systems (e.g., planetary rovers, autonomous docking spacecraft, and space tugs) operate under extreme constraints: | ||